GenAI as a frenemy in teaching: Perceived autonomy and risks

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) has the potential to transform education, yet little is known about how teachers’ perceptions of its autonomy and their risk aversion influence their willingness to adopt. This mixed method study utilised a human-AI interaction lens to investigate the psychological processes shaping varied adoption. Survey data from 287 teachers across 27 countries and regions were analysed using structural equation modelling with bootstrapped mediation tests, complemented by thematic analysis. Research results revealed that integrating GenAI in teaching is neither straightforward nor effortless. Teachers largely viewed it as semi-autonomous, preferring to retain full control over their teaching. Their awareness of situational factors may contribute to the perception of GenAI as semi-autonomous and weaken the link between artificial autonomy and their adoption intention. As the appeal of automation diminished, concerns about potential harm grew, with risk aversion playing a significant role in adoption decisions. Teachers were more concerned about students’ use of GenAI than their own. Overall, GenAI adoption requires careful consideration of context and human-AI interaction. This study enhances understanding of these dynamics, highlighting the psychological processes influencing adoption and offering insights for AI policy and professional training aimed at fostering thoughtful integration into education.